Delta Variant in the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparative Study on Clinical Outcomes Based on Vaccination Status.

BACKGROUND: As the global battle against the COVID-19 pandemic endures, the spread of the Delta variant has introduced nuanced challenges, prompting a nuanced examination. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a multilevel logistic regression analysis encompassing 197 patients, comprising 44 vaccinated individuals (V group) and 153 unvaccinated counterparts (UV). These patients, afflicted with the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2, were hospitalized between October 2021 and February 2022 at the COVID-19 department of a University Centre in Cluj-Napoca, Romania. We compared patient characteristics, CT lung involvement, Padua score, oxygen saturation (O2 saturation), ventilation requirements, dynamics of arterial blood gas (ABG) parameters, ICU admission rates, and mortality rates between the two groups. RESULTS: The UV group exhibited a statistically significant (p < 0.05) proclivity toward developing a more severe form of infection, marked by elevated rates of lung involvement, oxygen requirement, ICU admission, and mortality. CONCLUSION: Our findings underscore the substantial efficacy of the vaccine in diminishing the incidence of severe disease, lowering the rates of ICU admissions, and mitigating mortality among hospitalized patients.

The Effects of Probiotic Bacillus Spores on Dexamethasone-Treated Rats.

Glucocorticoids are effective anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents. Long-term exposure is associated with multiple metabolic side effects. Spore-forming probiotic bacteria have shown modulatory properties regarding glycolipid metabolism and inflammation. The aim of this study was to evaluate, for the first time, the effects of Bacillus species spores (B. licheniformis, B. indicus, B. subtilis, B. clausii, and B. coagulans) alone and in combination with metformin against dexamethasone-induced systemic disturbances. A total of 30 rats were randomly divided into 5 groups: group 1 served as control (CONTROL), group 2 received dexamethasone (DEXA), group 3 received DEXA and MegaSporeBiotic (MSB), group 4 received DEXA and metformin (MET), and group 5 received DEXA, MSB, and MET. On the last day of the experiment, blood samples and liver tissue samples for histopathological examination were collected. We determined serum glucose, total cholesterol, triglycerides, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), catalase, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and metformin concentration. DEXA administration caused hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia, increased inflammation cytokines, and decreased antioxidant markers. Treatment with MSB reduced total cholesterol, suggesting that the administration of Bacillus spores-based probiotics to DEXA-treated rats could ameliorate metabolic parameters.

The Psoriasis Disability Index in Romanian Psoriasis Patients during COVID-19 Pandemic: Contribution of Clinical and Psychological Variables.

BACKGROUND: Psoriasis is one of the most frequent chronic inflammatory skin diseases and has a negative impact on the interpersonal relationship and psychosocial well-being. The aims of this study were to examine the effects of intensity of pruritus on quality of life and depression, to investigate the relationship between anger, self-esteem, and depression, and to compare patients with early and late onset of psoriasis. As our study was carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic, we aimed also to investigate the safety concerns and anxiety related to COVID-19 in psoriasis patients. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 137 patients diagnosed with plaque psoriasis. The patients were classified as early-onset (age < 30 years) and late-onset psoriasis (age ≥ 30 years). Duration of disease, pruritus scores, and socio-demographic characteristics were recorded. Measures included the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), Psoriasis Disability Index (PDI), and Fear and anxiety in relationship with COVID-19 Scale were used for determining anger, anger expression style, self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and quality of life. RESULTS: The psoriasis patients had a lower score for self-esteem than the normative data from the Romanian general population. The average scores for state anger and trait anger are similar to the normative data from the Romanian general population, but the scores for anger-in and anger-out are higher. Patients with early onset had higher depression scores and lower quality of life. Self-esteem correlates negatively with depression, anger, severity of disability due to psoriasis, number of affected areas, and duration of disease. Lower level of self-esteem led to increased anger. CONCLUSIONS: Reduced self-esteem, increased anger levels, and depression are present in psoriasis patients. The effective treatment of psoriasis must, therefore, consist of a multidisciplinary approach, in which the personalized treatment of the skin condition is as important as the adjuvant therapies that reduce the patients' stress level.

Gut Molecules in Cardiometabolic Diseases: The Mechanisms behind the Story.

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Diabetes mellitus increases cardiovascular risk. Heart failure and atrial fibrillation are associated comorbidities that share the main cardiovascular risk factors. The use of incretin-based therapies promoted the idea that activation of alternative signaling pathways is effective in reducing the risk of atherosclerosis and heart failure. Gut-derived molecules, gut hormones, and gut microbiota metabolites showed both positive and detrimental effects in cardiometabolic disorders. Although inflammation plays a key role in cardiometabolic disorders, additional intracellular signaling pathways are involved and could explain the observed effects. Revealing the involved molecular mechanisms could provide novel therapeutic strategies and a better understanding of the relationship between the gut, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases.

Gastrointestinal microbiota: A predictor of COVID-19 severity?

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, has raised serious concerns worldwide over the past 3 years. The severity and clinical course of COVID-19 depends on many factors (e.g., associated comorbidities, age, etc) and may have various clinical and imaging findings, which raises management concerns. Gut microbiota composition is known to influence respiratory disease, and respiratory viral infection can also influence gut microbiota. Gut and lung microbiota and their relationship (gut-lung axis) can act as modulators of inflammation. Modulating the intestinal microbiota, by improving its composition and diversity through nutraceutical agents, can have a positive impact in the prophylaxis/treatment of COVID-19.

Therapeutic Efficacy and Outcomes of Remdesivir versus Remdesivir with Tocilizumab in Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

The infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) generated many challenges to find an effective drug combination for hospitalized patients with severe forms of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia. We conducted a retrospective cohort study, including 182 patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia hospitalized between March and October 2021 in a Pneumology Hospital from Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Among patients treated with standard of care, 100 patients received remdesivir (R group) and 82 patients received the combination of remdesivir plus tocilizumab (RT group). We compared the clinical outcomes, the inflammatory markers, superinfections, oxygen requirement, intensive care unit (ICU) admission and mortality rate before drug administration and 7 days after in R group and RT group. Borg score and oxygen support showed an improvement in the R group (p < 0.005). Neutrophiles, C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum ferritin levels decreased significantly in RT group but with a higher rate of superinfection in this group. ICU admission and death did not differ significantly between groups. The combination of remdesivir plus tocilizumab led to a significantly improvement in the inflammatory markers and a decrease in the oxygen requirement. Although the superinfection rate was higher in RT group than in R group, no significant difference was found in the ICU admission and mortality rate between the groups.

The Role of Probiotic Bacillus Spores and Amino Acids with Immunoglobulins on a Rat Enteropathy Model.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are some of the most widely used drugs due to their anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic pharmacological effects. Gastrointestinal side effects are some of the most severe and frequent side effects of NSAIDs. These depend on the balance of the gut microbiome, the abundance of Gram-negative bacteria, and the amount of lipopolysaccharide released. Therefore, restoring or improving gut bacteria balance with probiotic supplements could prove to be an adjuvant therapy against mild NSAID-induced enteropathy. Twenty-five Wistar albino male rats were divided into five groups. The negative control group was administered carboxymethylcellulose and the positive control group diclofenac (DIC), 8 mg/kg for 7 days, which represented the enteropathy model. Treatment groups consisted of a combination of pro-biotic spores (MSB), amino acids and immunoglobulins supplement (MM), which were also administered for 7 days. We analyzed hepatic injury markers (AST, ALT) and creatinine, and inflammatory markers, IL-6, TNF-α, PGE2, iNOS, as well as total antioxidant capacity. The results obtained in the present study suggest that the modulation of the intestinal microbiota by administration of probiotics (Bacillus spores), alone or in combination with immunoglobulins and amino acids, represents an attractive therapy for the prevention of NSAID-induced enteropathy.

The Protective Effects of Nutraceutical Components in Methotrexate-Induced Toxicity Models-An Overview.

There are multiple concerns associated with methotrexate (MTX), widely recognized for anti-neoplastic and anti-inflammatory effects in life-threatening disease conditions, i.e., acute lymphoblastic leukemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, psoriasis, and rheumatoid arthritis, due to long-term side effects and associated toxicity, which limits its valuable potential. MTX acts as an inhibitor of dihydrofolate reductase, leading to suppression of purine and pyrimidine synthesis in high metabolic and turnover cells, targeting cancer and dysregulated immune cells. Due to low discrimination between neoplastic cells and naturally high turnover cells, MTX is prone to inhibiting the division of all fast-dividing cells, causing toxicity in multiple organs. Nutraceutical compounds are plant-based or food-derived compounds, used for their preventive and therapeutic role, ascertained in multiple organ dysfunctions, including cardiovascular disease, ischemic stroke, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Gut microbiota and microbiota-derived metabolites take part in multiple physiological processes, their dysregulation being involved in disease pathogenesis. Modulation of gut microbiota by using nutraceutical compounds represents a promising therapeutic direction to restore intestinal dysfunction associated with MTX treatment. In this review, we address the main organ dysfunctions induced by MTX treatment, and modulations of them by using nutraceutical compounds. Moreover, we revealed the protective mechanisms of nutraceuticals in MTX-induced intestinal dysfunctions by modulation of gut microbiota.

Duodenal Ampulla Neuroendocrine Tumor with GISTs of the Proximal Jejunum: A Case Report.

Neuroendocrine tumors (NEN) are a type of heterogenous, slow-growing tumors, that only in about half of the cases can be found in the gastrointestinal tract. Half of these is in the small intestine. The ampullary NENs are rare, accounting for less than 1% of gastroenteropancreatic NENs. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) are a more common type of tumors of the gastrointestinal tract that consist of pacemaker cells. The occurrence of both tumors simultaneously is rare, but in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1, the co-existence of NEN and GIST is more often. Here we report a case of simultaneous occurrence of a well-differentiated NEN and a GIST in a patient without neurofibromatosis. Also, we provide a short review of the current knowledge and treatment strategies regarding these tumors.

Curcumin-Loaded Microspheres Are Effective in Preventing Oxidative Stress and Intestinal Inflammatory Abnormalities in Experimental Ulcerative Colitis in Rats.

Curcumin's role in the treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC) has been proven by numerous studies, but its preventive administration, with the aim of reducing the remission episodes that are characteristic of this disease, must be further investigated. This study investigates the effects of a novel curcumin-loaded polymeric microparticulate oral-drug-delivery system for colon targeting (Col-CUR-MPs) in an experimental model of UC. Male Wistar rats (n = 40) were divided into five groups (n = 8), which were treated daily by oral gavage for seven days with a 2% aqueous solution of carboxymethylcellulose sodium salt (CMCNa) (healthy and disease control), free curcumin powder (reference), Col-CUR-MPs (test) and prednisolone (reference) prior to UC induction by the intrarectal administration of acetic acid (AA), followed by animal sacrification and blood and colonic samples' collection on the eighth day. Col-CUR-MPs exhibited an important preventive effect in the severity degree of oxidative stress that resulted following AA intrarectal administration, which was proved by the highest catalase (CAT) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels and the lowest nitrites/nitrates (NOx), total oxidative status (TOS) and oxidative stress index (OSI) levels. Biochemical parameter analysis was supported by histopathological assessment, confirming the significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of this novel colon-specific delivery system in AA-induced rat models of UC. Thus, this study offers encouraging perspectives regarding the preventive administration of curcumin in the form of a drug delivery system for colon targeting.

miRNA Involvement in Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.

Cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury is a debilitating medical condition, currently with only a limited amount of therapies aimed at protecting the cerebral parenchyma. Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNA molecules that via the RNA-induced silencing complex either degrade or prevent target messenger RNAs from being translated and thus, can modulate the synthesis of target proteins. In the neurological field, miRNAs have been evaluated as potential regulators in brain development processes and pathological events. Following ischemic hypoxic stress, the cellular and molecular events initiated dysregulate different miRNAs, responsible for long-terming progression and extension of neuronal damage. Because of their ability to regulate the synthesis of target proteins, miRNAs emerge as a possible therapeutic strategy in limiting the neuronal damage following a cerebral ischemic event. This review aims to summarize the recent literature evidence of the miRNAs involved in signaling and modulating cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injuries, thus pointing their potential in limiting neuronal damage and repair mechanisms. An in-depth overview of the molecular pathways involved in ischemia reperfusion injury and the involvement of specific miRNAs, could provide future perspectives in the development of neuroprotective agents targeting these specific miRNAs.

The Role of miRNAs in Dexmedetomidine's Neuroprotective Effects against Brain Disorders.

There are limited neuroprotective strategies for various central nervous system conditions in which fast and sustained management is essential. Neuroprotection-based therapeutics have become an intensively researched topic in the neuroscience field, with multiple novel promising agents, from natural products to mesenchymal stem cells, homing peptides, and nanoparticles-mediated agents, all aiming to significantly provide neuroprotection in experimental and clinical studies. Dexmedetomidine (DEX), an α2 agonist commonly used as an anesthetic adjuvant for sedation and as an opioid-sparing medication, stands out in this context due to its well-established neuroprotective effects. Emerging evidence from preclinical and clinical studies suggested that DEX could be used to protect against cerebral ischemia, traumatic brain injury (TBI), spinal cord injury, neurodegenerative diseases, and postoperative cognitive disorders. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate gene expression at a post-transcriptional level, inhibiting the translation of mRNA into functional proteins. In vivo and in vitro studies deciphered brain-related miRNAs and dysregulated miRNA profiles after several brain disorders, including TBI, ischemic stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and multiple sclerosis, providing emerging new perspectives in neuroprotective therapy by modulating these miRNAs. Experimental studies revealed that some of the neuroprotective effects of DEX are mediated by various miRNAs, counteracting multiple mechanisms in several disease models, such as lipopolysaccharides induced neuroinflammation, ß-amyloid induced dysfunction, brain ischemic-reperfusion injury, and anesthesia-induced neurotoxicity models. This review aims to outline the neuroprotective mechanisms of DEX in brain disorders by modulating miRNAs. We address the neuroprotective effects of DEX by targeting miRNAs in modulating ischemic brain injury, ameliorating the neurotoxicity of anesthetics, reducing postoperative cognitive dysfunction, and improving the effects of neurodegenerative diseases.

The Relationships between Gut Microbiota and Diabetes Mellitus, and Treatments for Diabetes Mellitus.

Diabetes mellitus is considered to be a global epidemic. The combination of genetic susceptibility and an unhealthy lifestyle is considered to be the main trigger of this metabolic disorder. Recently, there has been increased interest in the roles of gut microbiota as a new potential contributor to this epidemic. Research, in recent years, has contributed to an in-depth characterization of the human microbiome and its associations with various diseases, including metabolic diseases and diabetes mellitus. It is known that diet can change the composition of gut microbiota, but it is unclear how this, in turn, may influence metabolism. The main objective of this review is to evaluate the pathogenetic association between microbiota and diabetes and to explore any new therapeutic agents, including nutraceuticals that may modulate the microbiota. We also look at several mechanisms involved in this process. There is a clear, bidirectional relationship between microbiota and diabetes. Current treatments for diabetes influence microbiota in various ways, some beneficial, but others with still unclear effects. Microbiota-aimed treatments have seen no real-world significant effects on the progression of diabetes and its complications, with more studies needed in order to find a really beneficial agent.

Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Bacterial Enterocytes and Therapeutic Target in Diabetes Mellitus Type 2.

Diabetes mellitus is a disease with multiple gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea or constipation, abdominal pain, bloating) whose pathogenesis is multifactorial. The most important of these factors is the enteric nervous system, also known as the "second brain"; a part of the peripheral nervous system capable of functioning independently of the central nervous system. Modulation of the enteric nervous system can be done by short-chain fatty acids, which are bacterial metabolites of the intestinal microbiota. In addition, these acids provide multiple benefits in diabetes, particularly by stimulating glucagon-like peptide 1 and insulin secretion. However, it is not clear what type of nutraceuticals (probiotics, prebiotics, and alimentary supplements) can be used to increase the amount of short-chain fatty acids and achieve the beneficial effects in diabetes. Thus, even if several studies demonstrate that the gut microbiota modulates the activity of the ENS, and thus, may have a positive effect in diabetes, further studies are needed to underline this effect. This review outlines the most recent data regarding the involvement of SCFAs as a disease modifying agent in diabetes mellitus type 2. For an in-depth understanding of the modulation of gut dysbiosis with SCFAs in diabetes, we provide an overview of the interplay between gut microbiota and ENS.

Overview of the microbiota in the gut-liver axis in viral B and C hepatitis.

Viral B and C hepatitis are a major current health issue, both diseases having a chronic damaging effect on the liver and its functions. Chronic liver disease can lead to even more severe and life-threatening conditions, such as liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Recent years have uncovered an important interplay between the liver and the gut microbiome: the gut-liver axis. Hepatitis B and C infections often cause alterations in the gut microbiota by lowering the levels of 'protective' gut microorganisms and, by doing so, hinder the microbiota ability to boost the immune response. Treatments aimed at restoring the gut microbiota balance may provide a valuable addition to current practice therapies and may help limit the chronic changes observed in the liver of hepatitis B and C patients. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge on the anato-functional axis between the gut and liver and to highlight the influence that hepatitis B and C viruses have on the microbiota balance, as well as the influence of treatments aimed at restoring the gut microbiota on infected livers and disease progression.

Ultrasound Image Computerized Analysis for Non-invasive Quantitative Evaluation of Hepatic Fibrosis.

BACKGROUND: Assessing the diagnostic value of liver ultrasound image computerized analysis (USICA) for hepatic fibrosis (HF) staging in respect to the "gold standard" provided by liver biopsy (LB). METHODS: Two-hundred twenty-eight patients with chronic hepatopathies were prospectively enrolled in the study. All the patients underwent LB and abdominal ultrasound (US). For quantitative US assessment of HF, an image analysis software was developed and 3 parameters were extracted by wavelet processing of the region of interest: mHLlivermHHliver, mHLlivermLLliver, and mHLlivermHLspleen. To assess the relevance of each feature, the support vector machine (SVM) classifiers were employed to discriminate between the 2 severity classes (i.e., incipient F1-F2 vs advanced F3-F4 fibrosis). The statistical significance of the HF staging was assessed using SVM classifiers, in terms of sensitivity (Se), specificity (Sp), and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. RESULTS: A cut-off value of 0.342 of mHLlivermHHliver allowed the discrimination between the incipient and advanced HF with 79.5% Se and 77.4% Sp, at an area under receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) value of 0.867 (P < .001). CONCLUSION: The proposed USICA using wavelet filter parameters proved to be an innovative method that is useful for the initial noninvasive evaluation and quantification of HF, with the advantages of simplicity, short calculation time, accessibility, and repeatability. The mHLlivermHHliver parameter has demonstrated good accuracy in distinguishing incipient and advanced HF and can be considered an effective non-invasive imaging marker for the assessment of HF in patients with chronic hepatic disease.

Endoscopic Ultrasound Elastography in the Assessment of Rectal Tumors: How Well Does It Work in Clinical Practice?

Endorectal ultrasound applications in the evaluation of rectal tumors could be a useful tool in achieving proper staging of rectal cancer. The purpose of this study was to compare the efficacy of rectal tumor staging by flexible endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) with real-time elastography (RTE) using the gold standard post-surgery histological analysis of the resected tissue as the control. The second aim of our research was to establish cutoff values for the EUS-RTE strain ratio corresponding to stages by independently comparing the stiffness values obtained with histology and EUS-RTE staging in order to minimize observation bias. We evaluated the records of 130 patients with a rectal tumor confirmed by biopsy. EUS was used in 70 patients, EUS-RTE-in the other 60. We found no statistically significant differences in staging accuracy when comparing EUS to EUS-RTE. Through a correspondence method between staging assessment and the EUS-RTE stain ratio, we identified cutoff intervals for T2, T3, and T4 staging that were nonoverlapping and proved to be statistically significant in terms of EUS-RTE values (significantly different ascending values from one interval to the other). We found that EUS-RTE offers slightly better, although not statistically significant sensitivity and specificity for T and N stage predictions compared to 2D EUS. Our results showed that EUS-RTE offers slightly higher sensitivity and specificity compared to EUS. Reliable cutoff intervals were found for strain rate elastography, previously available only for shear wave elastography (SWE) which is currently unavailable on any EUS system. Thus, these commonly available EUS-RTE systems can serve as a complementary tool in the staging of rectal tumors.

Novel concepts in psoriasis: histopathology and markers related to modern treatment approaches.

Psoriasis is a chronic autoimmune disease affecting over 2% of the worldwide population. From an anatomopathological point of view, psoriasis is characterized by immune cells infiltration, epidermal hyperproliferation, and abnormal keratinocyte differentiation. Understanding the pathogenesis of psoriasis will allow clinicians to manage this complex disease. Under these conditions, the application of effective treatments requires a thorough knowledge of all the pathogenetic mechanisms that lead to psoriasis. Numerous immunopathological pathways play crucial roles in the development of new therapies, such as biological therapies, which have been a breakthrough in psoriasis's treatment. Pharmacogenetics is an essential factor in the patient's response to treatment. One important pathway targeted by modern treatments is the interleukin (IL)-23∕T-helper (Th)17 axis. Like IL-17 inhibitors, IL-23 blockers are a very effective therapy for this autoimmune disease. It is considered that micro-ribonucleic acids (microRNAs) are the starting point for any autoimmune disease. Studying certain microRNA (miR) involved in the inflammatory pathway in psoriasis can find direct targets to future treatments that can even be more specific than actual biological therapies. As such, miR-210 has proven to be up-regulated in psoriasis, also leading to the up-regulation of the Th1∕Th17 axis. On the other hand, miR-187 was found to be down-regulated, influencing the outcome of psoriasis by increasing the proliferation of IL-6 stimulated keratinocytes and consecutively generating epidermal thickening. In this review, we are aiming to do an up-to-date briefing of psoriasis histopathology and pharmacogenetic factors that are considered for the accurate evaluation of treatment response.

Probiotic Bacillus Spores Together with Amino Acids and Immunoglobulins Exert Protective Effects on a Rat Model of Ulcerative Colitis.

In inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), experimental models have proven to be important tools for evaluating potential therapeutic agents and for investigating the mechanisms of pathogenesis. Oxidative stress and the immune response have been associated with acetic acid (AA)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC). Our study aimed to evaluate, for the first time, the ability of a spore-based probiotic and an amino acid and immunoglobulin supplement in reducing tissue damage and inflammatory responses in an experimental animal model of UC. Forty-two Wistar rats were divided into six groups, receiving 1% carboxymethylcellulose, 4% AA, MegaSporeBiotic™ (MSB; 1 × 109 colony forming units/day) and MegaMucosa™ (MM; 70 mg/100 g/day). Pretreatment with MSB or MM alone and in combination significantly lowered inflammation and reduced damage to the colonic mucosa. Pretreatment with these agents resulted in levels of proinflammatory cytokines, vascular tight junction proteins, and measures of oxidative stress similar to those reported for methylprednisolone, one of the first-line therapies for moderate to severe activity of UC. The protection was further confirmed by histologic analysis of the colon tissue. In conclusion, pretreatment with probiotic spore-forming Bacillus strains and a supplement of amino acids in combination with immunoglobulins exhibited anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in an AA-induced rat model of UC.

An Overview on the Mechanisms of Neuroprotection and Neurotoxicity of Isoflurane and Sevoflurane in Experimental Studies.

Since their first use, anaesthetic agents have seen major advancements and are now an indispensable element of surgical procedures. Two of the most used volatile anaesthetics are isoflurane and sevoflurane. These have neuroprotective effects on adult brains in different brain disorders, ranging from traumatic to hypoxic or ischemia-reperfusion injuries. In new-borns and elderly patients these effects are reversed, and volatile anaesthetics might have a neurotoxic effect, affecting the recovery and neurological capabilities of these patients. Since we are still using volatile anaesthetics, it is important to know in which conditions these substances are neurotoxic and neuroprotective, as well as to better understand the mechanisms underlying these effects. In this review we aim to summarise the current knowledge on the mechanisms involved in neuroprotection and neurotoxicity of neonatal, adult and aged brains and how these vary based on the brains age and underlying pathologies. This review should guide future experimental research towards less studied mechanisms and should help the development of neuroprotective strategies. Also, we provide a short summary of the substances used in experimental studies to prevent the neurotoxic effect of isoflurane and sevoflurane.